On June 18, 1815, near the village of Waterloo in Belgium, Napoleon Bonaparte fought his final battle. After escaping from exile on Elba, he had returned to France and rallied his armies for one last campaign to reclaim his empire. The assembled armies of Europe, convinced that Napoleon must be permanently removed from power, converged on the French emperor. Wellington, the British commander who had spent years fighting Napoleon in the Peninsula, faced the French from the south. Blücher, commanding the Prussian army, approached from the east. The battle of Waterloo was Napoleon's attempt to defeat these enemies piecemeal before they could coordinate their forces. Instead, it became his final, catastrophic defeat, ending not merely his rule but his political career forever.

The Hundred Days and the Return

In March 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. King Louis XVIII fled without a shot fired. The French people rallied to their former emperor. Within weeks, Napoleon had raised a new army. The European powers quickly mobilized their forces. Napoleon, recognizing that his enemies vastly outnumbered him, decided to strike first and destroy one enemy army before the others could coordinate. His strategy was to advance into Belgium, defeat Wellington and Blücher separately, and then turn on the approaching Russian and Austrian armies. However, the coordination of the Anglo-Dutch and Prussian forces would prove better than he anticipated.

The Armies and Dispositions

Napoleon commanded approximately 72,000 troops and 250 cannons. Wellington's Anglo-Dutch army numbered about 68,000 soldiers. The Prussian army under Blücher was estimated at about 113,000 men, moving toward the battle area. The field at Waterloo was bisected by the road from Charleroi to Brussels. Both armies took up positions along the ridge, with the British and Dutch to the south and west, awaiting the French attack. Blücher, recognizing the critical importance of speed, pushed his troops forward despite the muddy roads and fatigue. Napoleon, believing that he had more time, waited for the ground to dry from the previous night's rain before launching his assault. This delay, seemingly minor, allowed Prussian forces to draw closer to the battlefield.

The Battle's Brutal Progression

The battle began with a massive French artillery bombardment that was less effective than anticipated because the British positioned their infantry to absorb rather than be destroyed by the cannon fire. French cavalry charges against British infantry formed in square met with withering musket fire and failed. The key strongpoints were the farm complex of Hougoumont and the fortified position at La Haie-Sainte. Fighting over these positions was fierce and protracted. The French, though numerically advantaged, could not break the British defensive lines. As the afternoon wore on, Prussian troops began to arrive on the French right, forcing Napoleon to detach forces. The attrition was immense. Regiments that began the day with thousands were reduced to handfuls. Wellington's defense was methodical and resilient. As the day wore on and Prussian forces poured into the battle, the French situation became increasingly desperate.

The Collapse and Its Consequences

By late afternoon, with Prussian forces flanking his army, Napoleon launched the Imperial Guard in a last desperate assault. The Guard, which had never been defeated, attacked with courage and discipline. However, British and Dutch troops met the charge and shattered the Guard formations in brutal close-quarters combat. The sight of the Imperial Guard being repulsed demoralized the French army. The soldiers, exhausted and convinced that all was lost, began to break and flee. French casualties were staggering: about 25,000 killed and wounded, with another 8,000 captured. The Allies suffered approximately 24,000 casualties combined. Napoleon himself escaped and fled Belgium. The battle lasted less than a day, but its consequences were final. Napoleon was captured and exiled to Saint Helena. The battle of Waterloo established Wellington as the conqueror of Napoleon and ushered in a period of conservative restoration and the Concert of Europe, an attempt to prevent any single power from dominating the continent as Napoleon had done.